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		<title>The New EU Consumer Credit Directive: What It Means for Greek Banks and NPL Servicers — Before and After 20 November 2026</title>
		<link>https://rokas.com/the-new-eu-consumer-credit-directive-what-it-means-for-greek-banks-and-npl-servicers-before-and-after-20-november-2026/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Rokas admin]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 14 Sep 2026 14:55:36 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Capital Markets & Financial Regulation]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://rokas.com/?p=14828</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>The article was drafted by Alexandros Sarris &#38; Magdalini Mavromichali, Senior Associates for Lexology on 9 September 2026 Introduction Directive (EU) 2023/2225 (“CCD2”) replaces the 2008 Consumer Credit Directive (“CCD1”), updating EU consumer credit rules for a market that now includes Buy Now Pay Later (“BNPL”), digital origination, and — critically for Greece — a [&#8230;]</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/the-new-eu-consumer-credit-directive-what-it-means-for-greek-banks-and-npl-servicers-before-and-after-20-november-2026/">The New EU Consumer Credit Directive: What It Means for Greek Banks and NPL Servicers — Before and After 20 November 2026</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em><strong>The article was drafted by Alexandros Sarris &amp; Magdalini Mavromichali, Senior Associates for Lexology on 9 September 2026</strong></em></p>
<p><strong>Introduction</strong></p>
<p>Directive (EU) 2023/2225 (“CCD2”) replaces the 2008 Consumer Credit Directive (“CCD1”), updating EU consumer credit rules for a market that now includes Buy Now Pay Later (“BNPL”), digital origination, and — critically for Greece — a large stock of restructured and non-performing loans managed by third-party servicers. Greece has transposed CCD2 through Law 5317/2026 (Government Gazette, Series I, No. 108/10 July 2026), which goes beyond the EU floor by introducing a binding cap on interest rates and total borrowing cost.</p>
<p>The two regimes will not simply hand over from one to the other overnight. CCD1 — and the Greek instrument implementing it, Joint Ministerial Decision Z1-699/2010 — remains in force and continues to govern new consumer credit agreements right up until 20 November 2026. Only agreements concluded on or after that date fall under CCD2/Law 5317/2026. For banks still originating new lending and for NPL servicers managing existing books, this means two parallel legal regimes, applied by reference to the date an agreement is concluded, for some time to come. This article sets out what applies now, what changes, and where the practical risk sits for Greek banks and NPL managers.</p>
<p><b>Part I — The Regime Today: What Still Applies Until 20 November 2026</b></p>
<p>Any consumer credit agreement concluded before 20 November 2026 continues to be governed by the existing framework, and will remain so for its full life unless restructured in a way that creates a new agreement after that date (see Part III below). The key features of the current regime are:</p>
<ul>
<li>No statutory interest-rate or total-cost cap. Pricing of consumer credit — subject to the general usury and unfair-terms limits under the Civil Code and Law 2251/1994 — is set by each creditor. There is no APRC ceiling and no cap on the total amount repayable, unlike the regime that applies from 20 November 2026.</li>
<li>Pre-contractual information under CCD1/JMD Z1-699/2010: creditors must provide the Standard European Consumer Credit Information form and a general information duty, but with less prescriptive formatting and content requirements than the incoming SECCI standard, and no explicit duty to disclose automated-decision-making or profiling.</li>
<li>Creditworthiness assessment: required, but framed in general terms, without the “necessary, sufficient and proportionate data” standard or the explicit “no positive assessment, no credit” rule that CCD2 introduces.</li>
<li>Right of withdrawal: the existing 14-day right already applies, broadly consistent with the incoming regime, though CCD2 clarifies certain aspects, particularly around linked contracts.</li>
<li>No EU-derived pre-enforcement forbearance duty. Arrears handling today is governed by Greece’s own domestic infrastructure, developed independently of CCD1 — the Banking Code of Conduct (Law 4224/2013), the out-of-court debt settlement mechanism (Law 4738/2020), and Bank of Greece supervisory expectations. These frameworks are not being replaced — they will simply sit alongside a new EU-level statutory forbearance duty from 20 November 2026 (see Part III).</li>
<li>Credit intermediaries: lightly regulated at EU level; Greece does not currently operate a dedicated consumer-credit intermediary licensing and registration regime comparable to the one introduced by Law 5317/2026.</li>
<li>NPL servicing and credit purchasing: already comprehensively regulated under Law 4354/2015 (as most recently amended), which transposed the EU Credit Servicers and Credit Purchasers Directive (EU) 2021/2167. Servicers are licensed and supervised by the Bank of Greece, hold conduct-of-business obligations toward borrowers, and operate under their own register — entirely independent of the CCD1/CCD2 framework. This existing regime does not change with Law 5317/2026, though the new law’s definitions section expressly references it (see Part IV).</li>
</ul>
<p>Today, Greek consumer lending operates without a statutory price cap, with a lighter-touch (though still meaningful) disclosure and affordability framework, and with arrears/forbearance and NPL servicing governed by separate, well-established domestic regimes that long predate CCD2.</p>
<p><b>Part II — What Changes From 20 November 2026</b></p>
<p>Law 5317/2026 was published on 10 July 2026, but Part A — the consumer credit regime transposing CCD2 — only becomes fully applicable on 20 November 2026, in line with the EU-mandated timetable. (By contrast, the distance-marketing provisions in Part B of the same law, transposing Directive (EU) 2023/2673, have already been applied since publication.) From 20 November 2026, the following become legally binding for any consumer credit agreement concluded on or after that date:</p>
<ul>
<li>A statutory APRC cap and total-cost cap (Articles 39-40) — new in Greek law, with no equivalent under the current regime: no agreement may carry an APRC above the Bank of Greece’s quarterly market average plus a ministerially-fixed uplift (30-50%), and non-card loans may not require total repayment exceeding 60%/70%/75% of original capital depending on term.</li>
<li>A redesigned SECCI standard (Articles 9-14) with a mandatory, prominent first-page summary, an explicit “adequate explanations” duty, and a new disclosure requirement where pricing is based on automated processing or profiling.</li>
<li>A binding, more prescriptive creditworthiness assessment standard (Articles 22-27): the “necessary, sufficient and proportionate” data test and the “no positive assessment, no credit” rule, backed by civil-law and administrative sanctions.</li>
<li>A clarified withdrawal and early-repayment regime (Articles 34, 37-38), including linked-contract effects.</li>
<li>A ban on unsolicited credit and new restrictions on tying/bundling (Articles 15, 21), directly affecting cross-sell of insurance or ancillary products.</li>
<li>A “right to be forgotten” for cancer survivors: a ban on using oncological-diagnosis data for insurance products linked to credit, once five years have passed since the end of treatment.</li>
<li>A statutory pre-enforcement forbearance duty (Article 44): for the first time, a binding legal requirement — not just domestic soft law or supervisory expectation — to consider forbearance before starting enforcement on an in-scope agreement.</li>
<li>A new credit-intermediary licensing and registration regime (Articles 46-49), supervised by the Bank of Greece — a structure that does not currently exist for consumer-credit intermediaries specifically.</li>
<li>Dual-track enforcement (Articles 59-60): civil-law consequences and administrative sanctions attach to breaches of the new obligations from this date.</li>
</ul>
<p>What does not automatically change on 20 November: existing loan agreements concluded before that date are unaffected, and — subject to the classification question discussed in Part III — genuine modifications of those agreements that do not amount to a new credit agreement remain outside the new regime. The ministerial decision fixing the exact APRC uplift percentage is still pending — meaning the precise numerical cap will likely only be confirmed shortly before, or close to, the applicability date, leaving a compressed window for final repricing.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>You can read the full article on Lexology: <a href="https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=a28b91e7-995b-4676-99c3-f380d84ab415">The New EU Consumer Credit Directive: What It Means for Greek Banks and NPL Servicers — Before and After 20 November 2026 </a></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/the-new-eu-consumer-credit-directive-what-it-means-for-greek-banks-and-npl-servicers-before-and-after-20-november-2026/">The New EU Consumer Credit Directive: What It Means for Greek Banks and NPL Servicers — Before and After 20 November 2026</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></content:encoded>
					
		
		
		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">14828</post-id>	</item>
		<item>
		<title>Ασφάλιση Επαγγελματικής Ευθύνης: Η νομική της διάσταση</title>
		<link>https://rokas.com/%ce%b1%cf%83%cf%86%ce%ac%ce%bb%ce%b9%cf%83%ce%b7-%ce%b5%cf%80%ce%b1%ce%b3%ce%b3%ce%b5%ce%bb%ce%bc%ce%b1%cf%84%ce%b9%ce%ba%ce%ae%cf%82-%ce%b5%cf%85%ce%b8%cf%8d%ce%bd%ce%b7%cf%82-%ce%b7-%ce%bd%ce%bf/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Rokas admin]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 14 Sep 2026 07:50:46 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Financial law & Insurance]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://rokas.com/?p=14822</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Του κ. Ιωάννη Ρόκα,Ομ. Καθηγητή του Οικονομικού Πανεπιστημίου Αθηνών 1. Η ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης πρέπει να είναι σύμφωνη και με τις διατάξεις του βασικού νόμου 2496/1997 για την Ασφαλιστική σύμβαση (ΑσφΝ) ώστε να γεννάται στον ασφαλισμένο δικαίωμα να ζητήσει ασφαλιστική αποζημίωση και αντίστοιχη υποχρέωση στην Ασφαλιστική Επιχείρηση (ΑσφΕ) να την καταβάλει. Επίσης, για να υπάρξει [&#8230;]</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/%ce%b1%cf%83%cf%86%ce%ac%ce%bb%ce%b9%cf%83%ce%b7-%ce%b5%cf%80%ce%b1%ce%b3%ce%b3%ce%b5%ce%bb%ce%bc%ce%b1%cf%84%ce%b9%ce%ba%ce%ae%cf%82-%ce%b5%cf%85%ce%b8%cf%8d%ce%bd%ce%b7%cf%82-%ce%b7-%ce%bd%ce%bf/">Ασφάλιση Επαγγελματικής Ευθύνης: Η νομική της διάσταση</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Του κ. Ιωάννη Ρόκα,Ομ. Καθηγητή του Οικονομικού Πανεπιστημίου Αθηνών</p>
<p style="text-align: left;">1. Η ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης πρέπει να είναι σύμφωνη και με τις διατάξεις του βασικού<br />
νόμου 2496/1997 για την Ασφαλιστική σύμβαση (ΑσφΝ) ώστε να γεννάται στον<br />
ασφαλισμένο δικαίωμα να ζητήσει ασφαλιστική αποζημίωση και αντίστοιχη υποχρέωση<br />
στην Ασφαλιστική Επιχείρηση (ΑσφΕ) να την καταβάλει. Επίσης, για να υπάρξει κίνδυνος ένα<br />
πρόσωπο (ή επιχείρηση) να υπέχει αποζημιωτική αστική ευθύνη έναντι του ζημιωθέντα,<br />
πρέπει τούτο να προκύπτει από νομοθετικές διατάξεις περί αστικής ευθύνης, ώστε να<br />
μπορεί ο ζημιωθείς, βασιζόμενος σε αυτές, να προβάλει αξίωση αποζημίωσης κατά του<br />
ασφαλισμένου. Το πότε είναι σύμφωνη με το νόμο η ασφάλιση και πότε ο ασφαλισμένος<br />
κινδυνεύει πράγματι να υπέχει αποζημιωτική ευθύνη έναντι του ζημιωθέντος τρίτου είναι<br />
αναγκαία γνώση που θα πρέπει να υφίσταται τόσο κατά την διαδικασία προώθησης και<br />
πώλησης του ασφαλιστικού προϊόντος, όσο και κατά την διαμόρφωσή του· ιδιαίτερα όταν<br />
ο ασφαλιστικός κίνδυνος που μεταφέρεται στον ασφαλιστή, είναι κίνδυνος επαγγελματικής<br />
αποζημιωτικής ευθύνης, αφού τόσο το αν συντρέχει ευθύνη όσο και το αν ο ζημιωθείς έχει<br />
αποζημιωτική αξίωση είναι θέματα που απαιτούν υπαγωγή των πραγματικών<br />
περιστατικών στο νόμο.</p>
<p style="text-align: left;">
Η επαγγελματική αστική ευθύνη έχει δυναμική που οφείλεται στην προοδευτική<br />
συνειδητοποίηση και ευαισθητοποίηση των συναλλασσόμενων με εμπορικές επιχειρήσεις<br />
και κυρίως των καταναλωτών υπηρεσιών ή προϊόντων αυτών, των δικαιωμάτων που τους<br />
παρέχει η νομοθεσία προς προβολή αξίωσης αποζημίωσης, για λάθη ή παραλείψεις των<br />
παρόχων των προϊόντων / υπηρεσιών που αγόρασαν &#8211; αποζημίωσης που πολλές φορές<br />
έως σήμερα δεν προέβαλαν, επειδή δεν γνώριζαν ότι μπορούσαν. Όπως είναι, δε, γνωστό,<br />
η νομοθεσία δεν παρέχει από μόνη της προστασία χωρίς την γνώση των διατάξεων αυτής<br />
αλλά και την ενδεχόμενη σύμπραξη νομικού συμβούλου που καθιστά τη δημιουργία σωστής<br />
κρίσης και στάθμισης για το κατά πόσο μία απαίτηση είναι εύλογο να επιδιωχθεί. Το βέβαιο<br />
είναι ότι υπάρχει ευρύ πεδίο θεμελίωσης αξιώσεων αποζημίωσης για πλημμελείς ενέργειες,<br />
το οποίο δεν έχει καλλιεργηθεί ικανοποιητικά, αλλά βρισκόμαστε σε σωστή κατεύθυνση. Ο<br />
επαγγελματίας λοιπόν πρέπει να γνωρίζει τουλάχιστον την τάξη μεγέθους των κινδύνων<br />
επαγγελματικής ευθύνης που διατρέχει και της έκτασης των οικονομικών της συνεπειών,<br />
έχοντας υπόψη την τάση απόδοσης ευθυνών σε περιπτώσεις για τις οποίες στο παρελθόν<br />
δεν προβάλλονταν αξιώσεις αποζημίωσης.</p>
<p style="text-align: left;">
2. Η μεσιτεία ασφαλιστικών συμβάσεων είναι το κατάλληλο μέσο για να ενημερωθεί ο<br />
επιχειρηματίας σχετικά με την παραπάνω σημαντική διάσταση, γιατί η ενημέρωση γίνεται<br />
από μεσίτες, που κατ’ επάγγελμα, μεταξύ άλλων, προβαίνουν σε έρευνα για την αποκάλυψη<br />
αγνώστων ή κρυμμένων επαγγελματικών κινδύνων του υποψήφιου πελάτη, ώστε να<br />
ευρεθεί και προσφερθεί ασφαλιστικό προϊόν κατάλληλο, παρέχον πλήρη κάλυψη του<br />
επαγγελματικού κινδύνου.</p>
<p style="text-align: left;">
3. Η σημασία της επαγγελματικής ασφάλισης για την επαγγελματική υπόσταση του<br />
ασφαλισμένου είναι αυτονόητη, αφού τον ελευθερώνει από τις οικονομικές συνέπειες της<br />
άσκησης βάσιμων αξιώσεων αποζημίωσης τρίτων κατ’ αυτού, οι οποίες βασίζονται σε λάθη<br />
και παραλείψεις του, αλλά και από το κόστος απόκρουσης αβάσιμων αξιώσεων. Με την<br />
ασφάλιση αυτή ο επαγγελματίας, μεταξύ άλλων, πρώτον, απαλλάσσεται, καθ’ όλη την<br />
διάρκεια της κάλυψης, από την αβεβαιότητα ως προς το αν θα υποχρεωθεί σε αποζημίωση<br />
τρίτων εξαιτίας κάποιου λάθους ή παράλειψής του και έτσι μπορεί ελεύθερα να αναλάβει<br />
περισσότερες επιχειρηματικές πρωτοβουλίες και επαγγελματικά ρίσκα, αναγκαία για την<br />
πρόοδο της επιχείρησής του. Δεύτερον, αν πραγματοποιηθεί ο κίνδυνος, απαλλάσσεται από<br />
την υποχρέωση της αποζημίωσης. Τρίτον, η επιχείρησή του, ανάλογα και με το αντικείμενό<br />
της, αποκτά προστιθέμενη αξία και κύρος. Τέταρτον, εκπληροί την συμβατική του<br />
υποχρέωση έναντι ορισμένων φορέων, που θέτουν ως προϋπόθεση αγοράς των υπηρεσιών<br />
του να διαθέτει ο πάροχός τους σε ισχύ ασφάλιση της επαγγελματικής αστικής του ευθύνης.<br />
Πέμπτον, η κάλυψη επαγγελματικής αστικής ευθύνης, σε πολλές περιπτώσεις, έχει ως<br />
πρωταρχικό σκοπό την εξασφάλιση της αποζημίωσης ζημιωθέντων από ορισμένα είδη<br />
επαγγελματιών των οποίων η δραστηριότητα, κατά την κρίση του νομοθέτη, ενέχει<br />
αυξημένο κίνδυνο ζημιών των πελατών τους ή τρίτων. Ο λόγος της εισαγωγής ασφαλίσεων<br />
επαγγελματικής αστικής ευθύνης είναι η προστασία του τρίτου, άσχετα αν η ασφάλιση δρα<br />
και επ’ ωφελεία του επαγγελματία, όπως άλλωστε κάθε ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης.</p>
<p style="text-align: left;">
4. Σήμερα υπάρχουν 62 είδη υποχρεωτικών ασφαλίσεων, που σχεδόν όλες έχουν εισαχθεί<br />
σε εκτέλεση επιταγής ενωσιακών Οδηγιών και αφορούν ασφαλίσεις αστικής ευθύνης, ενώ<br />
πολλές είναι ή έχουν τον χαρακτήρα των ασφαλίσεων επαγγελματικής ευθύνης που<br />
διατίθενται ή θα μπορούσαν να διατίθενται στην αγορά. Όμως ο τρόπος με τον οποίο έχουν<br />
εισαχθεί στο ελληνικό δίκαιο καθιστά, ως επί το πλείστον, δύσκολη μέχρι αδύνατη την<br />
εφαρμογή τους, γιατί δεν προβλέπεται παρά σε ελάχιστες περιπτώσεις δυνατότητα ευθείας<br />
αγωγής του ζημιωθέντα τρίτου κατά του ασφαλιστή αστικής ευθύνης με παράλληλη<br />
απαγόρευση της προβολής έναντι του τρίτου ενστάσεων από την ασφαλιστική σύμβαση, με<br />
αποτέλεσμα να μην εκπληρώνεται ο σκοπός της υποχρεωτικότητας και η υποχρέωση<br />
ασφάλισης να μετατρέπεται κατ’ αποτέλεσμα σε «ευχή ασφάλισης». Ο ΑσφΝ (άρθ. 26 παρ.<br />
1 και 2) προβλέπει πως, όταν η ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης είναι κατά νόμο υποχρεωτική, ο<br />
τρίτος ζημιωθείς έχει ευθεία αξίωση κατά του ασφαλιστή αστικής ευθύνης μέχρι το όριο για<br />
το οποίο η ασφάλιση είναι υποχρεωτική και ότι ο ασφαλιστής δεν μπορεί να αντιτάξει κατά<br />
του τρίτου ζημιωθέντα ενστάσεις που απορρέουν από την ασφαλιστική σύμβαση.<br />
Προβλέπει επίσης (παρ. 4) πως με αποφάσεις της εποπτικής Αρχής (Υπ. Εμπορίου την εποχή<br />
της εισαγωγής του ΑσφΝ, που αντιστοιχεί σήμερα στην Τράπεζα της Ελλάδος) μπορεί να<br />
καθορίζονται η υπηρεσία ή το νομικό πρόσωπο που θα δέχονται τις κοινοποιήσεις των<br />
ασφαλιστών για τα γεγονότα που οδηγούν σε άρση ή λήξη της ασφαλιστικής σχέσης, η<br />
διαδικασία ελέγχου τήρησης της υποχρεωτικής ασφάλισης κ.λπ. Προβλέπεται δε ότι τα ως<br />
άνω – μεταξύ των οποίων, προεχόντως, το δικαίωμα ευθείας αγωγής του ζημιωθέντος<br />
τρίτου κατά του ασφαλιστή αστικής ευθύνης του ζημιώσαντος &#8211; δεν εφαρμόζονται αν δεν<br />
έχει ορισθεί η υπηρεσία ή το νομικό πρόσωπο. Όμως, τα 29 χρόνια από την θέση σε ισχύ<br />
του ΑσφΝ, η Πολιτεία δεν έκανε χρήση αυτής της ευχέρειας που της δίδει ο νόμος, με<br />
αποτέλεσμα να εισάγεται έκτοτε μία σειρά νέων υποχρεωτικών επαγγελματικών<br />
ασφαλίσεων, των οποίων δεν κάνει παρά ιδιαίτερα περιορισμένη χρήση η αγορά.</p>
<p><em><strong>Το άρθρο δημοσιεύτηκε στο περιοδικό Broker’s Time στο τεύχος 84, Απρίλιος – Ιούνιος 2026.</strong> </em></p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/%ce%b1%cf%83%cf%86%ce%ac%ce%bb%ce%b9%cf%83%ce%b7-%ce%b5%cf%80%ce%b1%ce%b3%ce%b3%ce%b5%ce%bb%ce%bc%ce%b1%cf%84%ce%b9%ce%ba%ce%ae%cf%82-%ce%b5%cf%85%ce%b8%cf%8d%ce%bd%ce%b7%cf%82-%ce%b7-%ce%bd%ce%bf/">Ασφάλιση Επαγγελματικής Ευθύνης: Η νομική της διάσταση</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">14822</post-id>	</item>
		<item>
		<title>Νόμιμος αποκλεισμός εκ μέρους του ΑΔΜΗΕ των ασφαλιστικών επιχειρήσεων από την έκδοση εγγυητικών επιστολών;</title>
		<link>https://rokas.com/%ce%bd%cf%8c%ce%bc%ce%b9%ce%bc%ce%bf%cf%82-%ce%b1%cf%80%ce%bf%ce%ba%ce%bb%ce%b5%ce%b9%cf%83%ce%bc%cf%8c%cf%82-%ce%b5%ce%ba-%ce%bc%ce%ad%cf%81%ce%bf%cf%85%cf%82-%cf%84%ce%bf%cf%85-%ce%b1%ce%b4%ce%bc/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Rokas admin]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Wed, 09 Sep 2026 11:51:41 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Financial law & Insurance]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://rokas.com/?p=14818</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Του κ. Ιωάννη Ρόκα O Κώδικας Διαχείρισης του Εθνικού Συστήματος Μεταφοράς Ηλεκτρικής Ενέργειας (ΕΣΜΗΕ), όπως ισχύει με βάση τη υπ’ αριθ. E-89A/2025  απόφαση της ΡΑΑΕΥ εισάγει υποχρέωση παροχής εγγύησης από κάθε εγγεγραμμένο στο Μητρώο του ΑΔΜΗΕ και καθ’ όλη τη διάρκεια ισχύος της Σύμβασης Σύνδεσης του στο ΕΣΜΗΕ. Οι εγγεγραμμένοι σήμερα είναι 91. Ο Κώδικας [&#8230;]</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/%ce%bd%cf%8c%ce%bc%ce%b9%ce%bc%ce%bf%cf%82-%ce%b1%cf%80%ce%bf%ce%ba%ce%bb%ce%b5%ce%b9%cf%83%ce%bc%cf%8c%cf%82-%ce%b5%ce%ba-%ce%bc%ce%ad%cf%81%ce%bf%cf%85%cf%82-%cf%84%ce%bf%cf%85-%ce%b1%ce%b4%ce%bc/">Νόμιμος αποκλεισμός εκ μέρους του ΑΔΜΗΕ των ασφαλιστικών επιχειρήσεων από την έκδοση εγγυητικών επιστολών;</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Του κ. Ιωάννη Ρόκα</p>
<p>O Κώδικας Διαχείρισης του Εθνικού Συστήματος Μεταφοράς Ηλεκτρικής Ενέργειας (ΕΣΜΗΕ), όπως ισχύει με βάση τη υπ’ αριθ. E-89A/2025  απόφαση της ΡΑΑΕΥ εισάγει υποχρέωση παροχής εγγύησης από κάθε εγγεγραμμένο στο Μητρώο του ΑΔΜΗΕ και καθ’ όλη τη διάρκεια ισχύος της Σύμβασης Σύνδεσης του στο ΕΣΜΗΕ. Οι εγγεγραμμένοι σήμερα είναι 91. Ο Κώδικας προβλέπει ότι  «<em>η υποχρέωση παροχής εγγύησης εκπληρώνεται είτε με την προσκόμιση εγγυητικής επιστολής εκδοθείσας από αναγνωρισμένη τράπεζα/πιστωτικό ίδρυμα που λειτουργεί νόμιμα σε χώρα-μέλος της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης, είτε με την κατάθεση ποσού σε ειδικό λογαριασμό που τηρεί ο Διαχειριστής του ΕΣΜΗΕ»</em>.</p>
<p>Η ως άνω πρόβλεψη, που αποκλείει τις ασφαλιστικές επιχειρήσεις από τους αποδεκτούς από τον ΑΔΜΗΕ εκδότες εγγυητικών επιστολών, δεν συμβιβάζεται με την αρχή της ισότητας (άρθ. 4 παρ. 1 του Σ), η οποία επιβάλλει την όμοια μεταχείριση όμοιων καταστάσεων και την ανόμοια μεταχείριση ανόμοιων καταστάσεων. Σύμφωνα δε με την νομολογία του ΣτΕ (λ.χ. ΣτΕ 2180/2014ꞏ 226/2013), η έκδηλη άνιση μεταχείριση μπορεί να εκφράζεται και μέσω της απόδοσης εκ του νόμου προνομίου που δεν ερείδεται σε αντικειμενικά και αξιολογικά κριτήρια. Οι εγγυητικές επιστολές, ανανεώνονται ετησίως και έχουν για τους εμπόρους ελάχιστο ύψος 20.000€, το οποίο αυξάνεται από διάφορους παράγοντες, κυρίως από τις ποσότητες των συναλλαγών. Εν προκειμένω, η ασφαλιστική δραστηριότητα παροχής εγγυήσεων, αφενός αναγνωρίζεται από την κείμενη νομοθεσία (άρθ. 22 ν. 2496/1997 γνωστού ως ΑσφΝ), αφετέρου προβλέπεται μαζί με την ασφάλιση εγγυήσεων ως ένας εκ των ασφαλιστικών κλάδων ζημιών (κλάδος 15, άρθ. 4  ν. 4364/2016). Μάλιστα, το γεγονός ότι οι ασφαλιστικές επιχειρήσεις, όπως και τα πιστωτικά ιδρύματα, εντάσσονται στον αυστηρά ρυθμιζόμενο χρηματοπιστωτικό τομέα, ενισχύει την ισοδυναμία τους ως προς την παροχή των ρυθμισμένων χρηματοπιστωτικών υπηρεσιών και εν προκειμένω, των  εγγυητικών επιστολών. Κατά συνέπεια, δεν προκύπτει σαφές ή επαρκές αξιολογικό κριτήριο που να δικαιολογεί τον αποκλεισμό των ασφαλιστικών επιχειρήσεων από την εν λόγω δραστηριότητα. Επιπλέον, η ρύθμιση εισάγει περιορισμό της οικονομικής ελευθερίας (άρθ. 5 παρ. 1 Σ), στερώντας από τις ασφαλιστικές επιχειρήσεις τη δυνατότητα άσκησης μέρους της επιχειρηματικής των δραστηριότητας, χωρίς προς τούτο να πληρούνται τα κριτήρια της αναγκαιότητας, της προσφορότητας και της εν στενή έννοια  αναλογικότητας (άρθ. 25 παρ. 1 εδ. γ΄ Σ), ενόψει και της απουσίας σχετικής αιτιολογικής βάσης.</p>
<p>Ο μη νόμιμος αποκλεισμός των ασφαλιστικών επιχειρήσεων από την κανονιστική πράξη της ΡΑΑΕΥ που αποτελεί ο Κώδικας Διαχείρισης ΕΣΜΗΕ, θα πρέπει συνεπώς να αρθεί με πράξη διορθωτικής παρέμβασης, ώστε διαζευκτικά να περιλαμβάνονται εγγυητικές επιστολές εκδόσεως είτε  των ασφαλιστικών εταιριών είτε των πιστωτικών ιδρυμάτων.</p>
<p>Να σημειώνεται ότι αντίστοιχη διαζευκτική διατύπωση απαντάται ήδη στο άρθ. 11 παρ. 3 της Πρότυπης Σύμβασης-Πλαίσιο για τη Μεταφορά Φυσικού Αερίου, η οποία καταρτίζεται με τον Διαχειριστή του Εθνικού Συστήματος Φυσικού Αερίου (ΔΕΣΦΑ), γεγονός που καταδεικνύει τη συμβατότητα της προτεινόμενης ρύθμισης με την υφιστάμενη κανονιστική πρακτική.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/%ce%bd%cf%8c%ce%bc%ce%b9%ce%bc%ce%bf%cf%82-%ce%b1%cf%80%ce%bf%ce%ba%ce%bb%ce%b5%ce%b9%cf%83%ce%bc%cf%8c%cf%82-%ce%b5%ce%ba-%ce%bc%ce%ad%cf%81%ce%bf%cf%85%cf%82-%cf%84%ce%bf%cf%85-%ce%b1%ce%b4%ce%bc/">Νόμιμος αποκλεισμός εκ μέρους του ΑΔΜΗΕ των ασφαλιστικών επιχειρήσεων από την έκδοση εγγυητικών επιστολών;</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">14818</post-id>	</item>
		<item>
		<title>Enforcement of Foreign Judgments in Serbia: Key Requirements and Practical Considerations</title>
		<link>https://rokas.com/enforcement-of-foreign-judgments-in-serbia-key-requirements-and-practical-considerations/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Rokas admin]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 04 Sep 2026 13:32:26 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[International Offices | News & Updates]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://rokas.com/?p=14814</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>The article was drafted by Mirjana Mladenovic Paripovic, Senior Associate &#38; Suzana Pavlovic, Associate for Lexology on 3 September 2026 Enforcement of a Foreign Judgment in Serbia For a successful claimant, obtaining a favourable judgment abroad may only be the first step. Where the debtor or its assets are located in Serbia, the practical question [&#8230;]</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/enforcement-of-foreign-judgments-in-serbia-key-requirements-and-practical-considerations/">Enforcement of Foreign Judgments in Serbia: Key Requirements and Practical Considerations</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em><strong>The article was drafted by Mirjana Mladenovic Paripovic, Senior Associate &amp; Suzana Pavlovic, Associate for Lexology on 3 September 2026</strong></em></p>
<p><b>Enforcement of a Foreign Judgment in Serbia</b></p>
<p>For a successful claimant, obtaining a favourable judgment abroad may only be the first step. Where the debtor or its assets are located in Serbia, the practical question becomes whether &#8211; and how &#8211; that foreign judgment can be recognized and enforced before the Serbian courts. This article is aimed at foreign creditors, and the lawyers advising them, who hold a court judgment against a debtor with assets or a presence in Serbia and are considering their options for recovery.</p>
<p>Serbian law generally permits the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments, provided that the statutory requirements are met. However, a foreign judgment does not automatically have the same legal effect as a domestic judgment. As a general rule, it must first satisfy the requirements for recognition under Serbian law.</p>
<p><b>Legal Framework</b></p>
<p>The recognition and enforcement of foreign court judgments in Serbia are primarily governed by the Law on Resolution of Conflict of Laws with Regulations of Other Countries<i> (&#8220;Official Gazette of the SFRY&#8221;, Nos. 43/82 and 72/82 &#8211; correction, &#8220;Official Gazette of the FRY&#8221;, No. 46/96, and &#8220;Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia&#8221;, No. 46/2006 &#8211; other law), </i>together with the Law on Enforcement and Security Interest<i> (&#8220;Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia&#8221;, Nos. 106/2015, 106/2016 &#8211; authentic interpretation, 113/2017 &#8211; authentic interpretation, 54/2019, 9/2020 &#8211; authentic interpretation, 10/2023 &#8211; other law, and 91/2025),</i> which specifically regulates the enforcement of foreign enforceable titles before Serbian courts.</p>
<p>International treaties may significantly affect the applicable regime. Serbia is a party to a number of bilateral agreements dealing with legal assistance and the recognition and enforcement of judgments. Therefore, before commencing proceedings, it is important to determine whether a bilateral or multilateral treaty applies between Serbia and the country in which the judgment was rendered.</p>
<p>Where an applicable international treaty specifically governs the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments, its provisions take precedence over the corresponding provisions of domestic conflict-of-laws legislation. Domestic rules remain applicable to matters not regulated by the relevant treaty.</p>
<p><b>Recognition as a Prerequisite for Enforcement</b></p>
<p>A foreign court judgment acquires the effect of a Serbian judgment once it has been recognised by the competent Serbian court. For creditors more familiar with jurisdictions that allow direct enforcement of foreign judgments, it is worth noting that Serbia follows a recognition-then-enforcement model: recognition is generally a precondition to enforcement, not merely a formality that runs alongside it.</p>
<p>In practice, recognition and enforcement should be distinguished. Recognition concerns whether the Serbian legal system will accept the foreign judgment and give it legal effect. Enforcement concerns the subsequent use of Serbian enforcement mechanisms against the debtor or the debtor&#8217;s assets.</p>
<p>Serbian enforcement legislation nevertheless provides an important procedural possibility: an enforcement creditor may file a motion for enforcement based on a foreign enforceable document even where that document has not previously been recognised in separate recognition proceedings. In such circumstances, the court deciding on enforcement may also determine whether the requirements for recognition are satisfied as a preliminary issue. This may, depending on the circumstances of the particular case, make the enforcement process more efficient.</p>
<p><b>What Must the Creditor Provide?</b></p>
<p>A party seeking recognition will generally need to submit the foreign judgment together with evidence that the judgment has become final under the law of the country in which it was rendered. Where enforcement is sought, evidence that the judgment is enforceable under the law of the state of origin is also required.</p>
<p>Foreign documents will generally need to be submitted in a form suitable for use before Serbian authorities, including the appropriate translation and, where applicable, authentication or legalisation.</p>
<p>Deficiencies relating to finality, enforceability, certification or translation can cause unnecessary procedural delays.</p>
<p><b>Grounds Relevant to Recognition</b></p>
<p>Serbian courts do not conduct a new trial on the merits of the dispute merely because recognition of a foreign judgment is requested.</p>
<p>Instead, the court examines whether the statutory conditions for recognition have been satisfied.</p>
<p>Among the matters that may prevent recognition are issues concerning the defendant&#8217;s ability to participate properly in the foreign proceedings, the existence of exclusive jurisdiction of Serbian courts in the relevant matter, conflicting judgments, public policy and, where applicable, reciprocity.</p>
<p>Accordingly, a creditor considering enforcement in Serbia should analyse potential recognition objections before filing the application, rather than addressing them only after they have been raised by the debtor.</p>
<p><b>The Right to Participate in the Foreign Proceedings</b></p>
<p>Procedural fairness is particularly important. Recognition may be refused where the person against whom the foreign judgment was rendered was unable to participate in the proceedings because of procedural irregularities. This makes evidence concerning service of process particularly relevant, especially in default judgment cases.</p>
<p>In practice, in cases involving a default judgment, the creditor should be prepared to demonstrate that the defendant was properly notified of the proceedings and was afforded an adequate opportunity to participate, should the defendant raise an objection on this ground.</p>
<p><b>Serbian Exclusive Jurisdiction</b></p>
<p>Recognition may also encounter difficulties where Serbian law provides for the exclusive jurisdiction of Serbian courts or another Serbian authority in the matter concerned. This issue should therefore be checked at an early stage, particularly where the underlying dispute has a strong connection with Serbia or concerns matters for which Serbian legislation reserves jurisdiction to domestic authorities.</p>
<p><b>Conflicting Judgments</b></p>
<p>Recognition of a foreign judgment will be refused where a Serbian court or another competent Serbian authority has already rendered a final judgment in the same matter, between the same parties, or where another foreign judgment rendered in the same matter between the same parties has already been recognised in Serbia. Where a final Serbian judgment already  exists, the foreign judgment cannot be recognised irrespective of whether the foreign proceedings were commenced, or the foreign judgment was rendered, before the Serbian proceedings or judgment.</p>
<p>A different rule applies where proceedings are still pending in Serbia. If proceedings concerning the same matter and between the same parties were commenced before a Serbian court prior to the commencement of the foreign proceedings, the Serbian court will stay the recognition proceedings until the Serbian proceedings have been finally concluded.</p>
<p>Accordingly, before seeking recognition, a creditor should verify whether the dispute has already been finally determined in Serbia, whether another foreign judgment concerning</p>
<p>the same matter has previously been recognised, or whether earlier proceedings between the same parties remain pending before a Serbian court.</p>
<p>You can read the full article on Lexology: <a href="https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=a0a7fc5a-509b-4ac5-9361-d4181ac53204">Enforcement of Foreign Judgments in Serbia: Key Requirements and Practical Considerations &#8211; Lexology</a></p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/enforcement-of-foreign-judgments-in-serbia-key-requirements-and-practical-considerations/">Enforcement of Foreign Judgments in Serbia: Key Requirements and Practical Considerations</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">14814</post-id>	</item>
		<item>
		<title>Υποχρεωτική ασφάλιση ηλεκτρικών πατινιών: Μία αναγκαία, πλην ατελής ρύθμιση</title>
		<link>https://rokas.com/%cf%85%cf%80%ce%bf%cf%87%cf%81%ce%b5%cf%89%cf%84%ce%b9%ce%ba%ce%ae-%ce%b1%cf%83%cf%86%ce%ac%ce%bb%ce%b9%cf%83%ce%b7-%ce%b7%ce%bb%ce%b5%ce%ba%cf%84%cf%81%ce%b9%ce%ba%cf%8e%ce%bd-%cf%80%ce%b1%cf%84/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Rokas admin]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 01 Sep 2026 12:51:50 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Financial law & Insurance]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://rokas.com/?p=14809</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Άρθρο του Κοσμά Καρανικόλα, Senior Associate που δημοσιεύτηκε στο nextdeal.gr στις 27/07/2026 Με το νέο άρθ. 27Α που προστέθηκε στον ν. 4784/2021 με τον ν. 5322/2026 εισάγεται «Υποχρέωση ασφάλισης Ελαφρών Προσωπικών Ηλεκτρικών Οχημάτων (Ε.Π.Η.Ο)». Ο νόμος εννοεί, όπως συνάγεται από το κείμενο της διάταξης, «υποχρέωση ασφάλισης κατά του κινδύνου αστικής ευθύνης», καθόσον ασφάλιση χωρίς προσδιορισμό [&#8230;]</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/%cf%85%cf%80%ce%bf%cf%87%cf%81%ce%b5%cf%89%cf%84%ce%b9%ce%ba%ce%ae-%ce%b1%cf%83%cf%86%ce%ac%ce%bb%ce%b9%cf%83%ce%b7-%ce%b7%ce%bb%ce%b5%ce%ba%cf%84%cf%81%ce%b9%ce%ba%cf%8e%ce%bd-%cf%80%ce%b1%cf%84/">Υποχρεωτική ασφάλιση ηλεκτρικών πατινιών: Μία αναγκαία, πλην ατελής ρύθμιση</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="text-align-justify" dir="ltr"><strong>Άρθρο του Κοσμά Καρανικόλα, Senior Associate που δημοσιεύτηκε στο nextdeal.gr στις 27/07/2026</strong></p>
<ol>
<li dir="ltr">
<p class="text-align-justify">Με το νέο άρθ. 27Α που προστέθηκε στον ν. 4784/2021 με τον ν. 5322/2026 εισάγεται</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p class="text-align-justify" dir="ltr">«Υποχρέωση ασφάλισης Ελαφρών Προσωπικών Ηλεκτρικών Οχημάτων (Ε.Π.Η.Ο)». Ο νόμος εννοεί, όπως συνάγεται από το κείμενο της διάταξης, «υποχρέωση ασφάλισης κατά του κινδύνου αστικής ευθύνης», καθόσον ασφάλιση χωρίς προσδιορισμό του κινδύνου που καλύπτει δεν είναι νοητή. Η υποχρέωση βαρύνει τον κύριο και τον κάτοχο των Ε.Π.Η.Ο. με ηλεκτροκινητήρα, ως τα οχήματα αυτά ορίζονται στον Κώδικα Οδικής Κυκλοφορίας (ΚΟΚ), τα οποία είναι α] τα πατίνια / e-scooters, β] τα τροχοπέδιλα (rollers), γ] οι τροχοσανίδες (skateboards) και δ] τα αυτοεξισορροπούμενα προσωπικά οχήματα.</p>
<ol start="2">
<li dir="ltr">
<p class="text-align-justify">Στην παρ. 1, η διάταξη προβλέπει ότι ο κύριος και ο κάτοχος των ως άνω Ε.Π.Η.Ο.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p class="text-align-justify" dir="ltr">«υποχρεούται σε ασφάλιση γενικής αστικής ευθύνης έναντι τρίτου για την κυκλοφορία των οχημάτων αυτών». Ο ν. 4364/2016 για την ανάληψη και άσκηση δραστηριοτήτων (αντ)ασφάλισης, στο άρθ. 4 αυτού, προβλέπει μεν πως, όποια ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης δεν είναι ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης από χερσαία οχήματα, από αεροσκάφη και από θαλάσσια κ.λπ. πλοία, εντάσσεται στον κλάδο των ασφαλίσεων γενικής αστικής ευθύνης, πλην όμως πρόκειται για ονομασίες που χρησιμοποιεί ο νόμος για να ταξινομήσει τους κινδύνους των επιμέρους κλάδων ασφαλίσεων για τους οποίους μπορεί να δοθεί από την εποπτική Αρχή άδεια εργασιών σε μία ασφαλιστική επιχείρηση. Αντίθετα, στο επίπεδο των συμβατικών σχέσεων ασφαλισμένου – ασφαλιστικής επιχείρησης, η ονομασία «ασφάλιση γενικής αστικής ευθύνης» δεν μπορεί να αφορά κάλυψη κάθε αστικής ευθύνης, αλλά θα αφορά πάντα ασφάλιση κάποιου επιμέρους κινδύνου ή κατηγορίας κινδύνων αστικής ευθύνης. Αλλά και ως ταξινομημένος κλάδος, η ασφάλιση γενικής αστικής ευθύνης περιλαμβάνει κάθε είδους ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης εκτός της αστικής ευθύνης χερσαίων αυτοκίνητων οχημάτων, αεροσκαφών και θαλάσσιων κ.λπ. σκαφών, που αποτελούν διακεκριμένους κλάδους. Εν προκειμένω, ο κίνδυνος που θα πρέπει να καλύπτεται από την νέα υποχρεωτική ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης που εισάγει η διάταξη είναι ο κίνδυνος αστικής ευθύνης έναντι του τρίτου ζημιωθέντα από την κυκλοφορία του Ε.Π.Η.Ο. Έτσι, η αναφορά της διάταξης σε «ασφάλιση γενικής αστικής ευθύνης…» αναιρείται από την συνέχεια της φράσης «…έναντι τρίτου για την κυκλοφορία των οχημάτων αυτών». Αλλά και από την άποψη της ταξινόμησης των ασφαλιστικών κινδύνων που γίνεται για τις ανάγκες της εποπτείας, η ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης του κυρίου και κατόχου Ε.Π.Η.Ο. κατατάσσεται στον ασφαλιστικό κλάδο «αστική ευθύνη από χερσαία αυτοκίνητα οχήματα» και όχι στον κλάδο «γενική αστική ευθύνη», γιατί το Ε.Π.Η.Ο. είναι όχημα, ο δε ο τίτλος του κλάδου 10 («αστική ευθύνη από χερσαία αυτοκίνητα οχήματα») δεν αναφέρεται αποκλειστικά στα οχήματα των οποίων ο κύριος/κάτοχος υποχρεούται να έχει ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης από ατυχήματα τρίτων σύμφωνα με το π.δ. 237/1986, αλλά αδιακρίτως στα όποια αυτοκίνητα οχήματα. Διαφορετικά η ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης έναντι τρίτων για ατυχήματα από αυτοκίνητα στα οποία δεν εφαρμόζεται το π.δ. 237/1986, θα έπρεπε να κατατάσσεται στον γενικό κλάδο «ασφάλισης γενικής αστικής ευθύνης». Υπάρχουν περισσότεροι από 40 υποχρεωτικά καλυπτόμενοι κίνδυνοι αστικής ευθύνης, με τις σχετικές υποχρεωτικές ασφαλίσεις να ονομάζονται σύμφωνα με τον κίνδυνο που καλύπτουν, όπως λ.χ. η υποχρεωτική ασφάλιση αστικής ευθύνης των ασφαλιστικών διαμεσολαβητών, η οποία δεν ονομάζεται ασφάλιση γενικής αστικής ευθύνης, χωρίς να έχει καμία σημασία ότι, για να μπορεί να ασκηθεί η ασφάλιση αυτή, θα πρέπει η ασφαλιστική επιχείρηση να έχει άδεια για την άσκηση του κλάδου γενικής αστικής ευθύνης. Ως ονομασία της ασφαλιστικής σύμβασης δίδεται ο κίνδυνος ή οι κίνδυνοι που καλύπτονται από την συγκεκριμένη ασφαλιστική σύμβαση και όχι ένας κλάδος από τους 18 κλάδους στους οποίους ταξινομούνται οι ασφαλιστικές εργασίες με σκοπό να δοθεί η άδεια εργασιών από την εποπτική Αρχή στην αιτούσα ασφαλιστική επιχείρηση, η οποία μπορεί να ζητήσει άδεια εργασιών για έναν ή περισσότερους ή και τους 18 κλάδους.</p>
<p class="text-align-justify" dir="ltr">Ακολούθως, η νέα διάταξη προβλέπει ότι <u>η υποχρεωτική ασφάλιση</u> καλύπτει <u>υποχρεωτικά</u> «σωματικές βλάβες, τον θάνατο και τις υλικές ζημίες που προκαλούνται από την κυκλοφορία του ως άνω Ε.Π.Η.Ο. (…) και καταλαμβάνει και την αστική ευθύνη του οδηγού για ποσό €50.000 ανά περιστατικό και συνολικά κατ’ έτος για όλα τα περιστατικά». Όμως εφόσον η διάταξη τιτλοφορείται υποχρέωση ασφάλισης Ε.Π.Η.Ο., αναγκαία οι σωματικές βλάβες, ο θάνατος και οι υλικές ζημίες που προκαλούνται από την κυκλοφορία του γεννούν αστική ευθύνη του οδηγού και η προσθήκη της αναφοράς σε «υποχρέωση ασφάλισης της αστικής ευθύνης του οδηγού» έχει νόημα μόνο ως προς το σκέλος του καθορισμού του κατώτατου ορίου αστικής ευθύνης για το οποίο πρέπει να είναι ασφαλισμένος ο οδηγός του οχήματος αυτού.</p>
<ol start="3">
<li dir="ltr">
<p class="text-align-justify">Η παρ. 1 τελειώνει με την πρόβλεψη ότι «σε περίπτωση κάλυψης προσωπικού ατυχήματος νόμιμου οδηγού του Ε.Π.Η.Ο., το ελάχιστο ποσό κάλυψης για μόνιμη ολική ανικανότητα, μόνιμη μερική ανικανότητα και απώλεια ζωής από ατύχημα ανά περιστατικό και συνολικά κατ’ έτος για όλα τα περιστατικά ορίζεται στα €10.000». Η πρόβλεψη αφορά μόνο την περίπτωση που ο κύριος ή κάτοχος του οχήματος θελήσει να διενεργήσει ασφάλιση υπέρ του οδηγού του οχήματος κατά προσωπικού του ατυχήματος. Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση ο οδηγός πρέπει να είναι «νόμιμος», δηλαδή να το οδηγούσε σύμφωνα με την εκπεφρασμένη ή προκύπτουσα βούληση του κυρίου ή κατόχου αυτού και το κατώτατο όριο κάλυψης πρέπει να είναι €10.000. Αφού όμως αυτή η κάλυψη δεν αφορά τον υποχρεωτικά ασφαλισμένο κίνδυνο αστικής ευθύνης του οδηγού του οχήματος, αλλά τον κίνδυνο προσωπικού ατυχήματος του οδηγού και παρέχεται προαιρετικά, μόνο «σε περίπτωση» που συναφθεί, δεν υπάρχει λόγος ορισμού ελάχιστου ποσού, αφού μπορεί ο κύριος / κάτοχος του Ε.Π.Η.Ο. να μην προβεί καν στην ασφάλιση αυτή. Εξάλλου, η ελευθερία των συμβάσεων επιτρέπει να συμφωνηθεί ασφάλιση προσωπικού ατυχήματος και για πολύ υψηλότερο κατώτατο ποσό και να καλύπτει ακόμα και τον μη νόμιμο οδηγό.</p>
</li>
<li dir="ltr">
<p class="text-align-justify">Στην παρ. 2 της διάταξης του νέου άρθ. 27Α προβλέπεται ότι η ασφάλιση δεν παρέχεται αν δεν τηρούνται οι προϋποθέσεις του άρθ. 44 παρ. 10 του ΚΟΚ, που αφορά το ελάχιστο όριο ηλικίας του οδηγού. Με τροποποίηση της ως άνω διάταξης του ΚΟΚ που εισάγει το άρθ. 76 παρ. 2 του νέου νόμου, στον οποίο περιέχεται και η ρύθμιση περί υποχρεωτικής ασφάλισης του κυρίου / κατόχου Ε.Π.Η.Ο., προβλέπεται ως γενικό ηλικιακό όριο για την νόμιμη οδήγηση όλων των Ε.Π.Η.Ο. (πλην των αναπηρικών αμαξιδίων) τα 17 έτη (ενώ μέχρι σήμερα το όριο ήταν τα 12 έτη για τα πατίνια και τα 15 έτη για τα τροχοπέδιλα και τις τροχοσανίδες). Δεδομένης υποχρέωσης κάλυψης του οδηγού Ε.Π.Η.Ο., οι ως άνω περιορισμοί αφορούν την υποχρέωση της ασφαλιστικής εταιρίας να μην δέχεται να ασφαλίσει ευθύνη για ατυχήματα Ε.Π.Η.Ο., αν δεν συντρέχουν στο πρόσωπο του οδηγού οι ως άνω ηλικιακές προϋποθέσεις, σε περίπτωση παράβασης των οποίων, εννοείται, δεν επιτρέπεται να οδηγούνται τα εν λόγω οχήματα.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p class="text-align-justify" dir="ltr">4. Σημειώνεται ότι η νέα αυτή υποχρεωτική ασφάλιση αφήνει, μεταξύ άλλων, αρρύθμιστο:</p>
<p class="text-align-justify" dir="ltr">α] το ζήτημα της κάλυψης της αστικής ευθύνης του κατόχου έναντι τρίτων ζημιωθέντων από ατύχημα που προξένησε «μη νόμιμος οδηγός». Να σημειωθεί ότι, μεταξύ των άλλων ελλείψεων της διάταξης που εισάγει την υποχρεωτική ασφάλιση αυτή, ο κύριος &#8211; μη κάτοχος/οδηγός που προξένησε το ατύχημα, κατ’ αρχήν δεν θα ευθύνεται έναντι του τρίτου ζημιωθέντα, γιατί δεν υφίσταται διάταξη που να θεμελιώνει ευθύνη του κυρίου – μη οδηγού Ε.Π.Η.Ο. από διακινδύνευση, ούτε προφανώς αποτελεί γενεσιουργό λόγο της ευθύνης του κυρίου μόνη η κατοχή του Ε.Π.Η.Ο.. Περαιτέρω, η διάταξη:</p>
<p class="text-align-justify" dir="ltr">β] δεν προβλέπει δικαίωμα ευθείας αγωγής του ζημιωθέντα τρίτου κατά του ασφαλιστή αστικής ευθύνης του κυρίου / κατόχου Ε.Π.Η.Ο.,</p>
<p class="text-align-justify" dir="ltr">γ] δεν προβλέπει αν η ασφαλιστική επιχείρηση μπορεί να αρνηθεί την κάλυψη, αν ο ασφαλισμένος ήθελε παραβεί συμβατικές του υποχρεώσεις και το σπουδαιότερο,</p>
<p class="text-align-justify" dir="ltr">δ] δεν προβλέπει αν η ασφαλιστική επιχείρηση μπορεί να θέσει απαλλακτικές ρήτρες &#8211; και ποιες είναι αυτές – για την περίπτωση παραβάσεων ασφαλιστικών όρων ούτε προβλέπει αν και σε ποια έκταση εφαρμόζεται ο ΑσφΝ ενώ, τέλος,</p>
<p class="text-align-justify" dir="ltr">ε] δεν προβλέπει ειδικό μηχανισμό εντοπισμού των ανασφάλιστων Ε.Π.Η.Ο.</p>
<p dir="ltr">
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/%cf%85%cf%80%ce%bf%cf%87%cf%81%ce%b5%cf%89%cf%84%ce%b9%ce%ba%ce%ae-%ce%b1%cf%83%cf%86%ce%ac%ce%bb%ce%b9%cf%83%ce%b7-%ce%b7%ce%bb%ce%b5%ce%ba%cf%84%cf%81%ce%b9%ce%ba%cf%8e%ce%bd-%cf%80%ce%b1%cf%84/">Υποχρεωτική ασφάλιση ηλεκτρικών πατινιών: Μία αναγκαία, πλην ατελής ρύθμιση</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">14809</post-id>	</item>
		<item>
		<title>The Right to be forgotten and its impact on the insurance market</title>
		<link>https://rokas.com/the-right-to-be-forgotten-and-its-impact-on-the-insurance-market/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Rokas admin]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 31 Aug 2026 09:48:03 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Financial law & Insurance]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://rokas.com/?p=14806</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>The article was drafted by Vasiliki Kalogirou, Associate &#38; Andreas Papastathis, Partner for Lexology on August 27, 2026 Across Europe, a history of cancer can affect access to financial services, loans, mortgages and insurance. This discrimination arises because past diagnoses are potentially treated as ongoing financial risk, thus it becomes more difficult for cancer survivors [&#8230;]</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/the-right-to-be-forgotten-and-its-impact-on-the-insurance-market/">The Right to be forgotten and its impact on the insurance market</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em><strong>The article was drafted by Vasiliki Kalogirou, Associate &amp; Andreas Papastathis, Partner for Lexology on August 27, 2026</strong></em></p>
<p>Across Europe, a history of cancer can affect access to financial services, loans, mortgages and insurance. This discrimination arises because past diagnoses are potentially treated as ongoing financial risk, thus it becomes more difficult for cancer survivors to take out insurance, they are subject to higher premiums and more limited coverage, while they are also often excluded from premium services. Article 17 of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) provides for the right to erasure, pursuant to which the data subject may request that the controller erase his or her personal data without undue delay, where one of the grounds set out therein applies. These grounds include, inter alia, circumstances where the personal data are no longer necessary in relation to the purposes for which they were collected, and where the erasure of the personal data is necessary for compliance with a legal obligation to which the controller is subject under Union law. However, in the present case, the issue is not one of data erasure; rather, the matter is that such information ceases to have legal reference, may no longer be relied upon after a specified remission period. The request for information about the policyholder’s oncological medical history is not permitted, nor is it possible to acquire such information when it comes from other sources. Likewise, if this information is in any case available to the operator or financial intermediary, it cannot be used to determine the terms of the contract.</p>
<p><strong>The Data Protection Dimension</strong></p>
<p>In cases involving cancer, the “right to be forgotten” does not necessarily entail the physical deletion of medical records from a hospital’s or healthcare provider’s systems, since such records may legitimately need to be retained for medical, healthcare and other legally recognised purposes. Rather, in this context, the concept primarily concerns restrictions on the use and processing of such health data by insurers and financial institutions, so as to prevent an individual’s previous cancer diagnosis from being used as a basis for unjustified discrimination or adverse decision-making. In any event, from a data protection perspective, health data and medical history are afforded enhanced protection under the GDPR and, more precisely, constitute “special categories of personal data” within the meaning of Article 9 GDPR. In cases such as those involving cancer survivors, because medical data cannot be completely deleted from the healthcare system (for reasons of public health and medical history), the right to erasure (“right to be forgotten”) may operate alongside the right to restriction of processing under Article 18 GDPR. In practical terms, this means that the data are “locked”, while their further processing or use for the purpose of making decisions adversely affecting the individual may be restricted.</p>
<p><strong>The Emerging EU Regulatory Framework</strong></p>
<p>Τhe EU Consumer Credit Directive, published in October 2023, was the first European law to include provisions that personal information, including health data such as past cancer, should not be used to determine creditworthiness. Τhe information used to assess creditworthiness should be necessary and proportionate to the nature, duration, value, and risks of the credit to the consumer, in accordance with the data minimization principle set forth in Regulation (EU) 2016/679, and should be relevant, complete, and accurate. Under the Directive, Member States can set the period after treatment during which health data can still be used, but this cannot exceed 15 years. Later, in September 2024, the European Commission adopted a non binding Code of Conduct on fair access of cancer survivors to financial services, a self regulatory commitment by insurance undertakings to guarantee the right to be forgotten in the context of life insurance policies linked to loans. While this sets a universal framework, some national provisions can still be stricter than medically necessary. Member States will begin applying the Directive from 20 November 2026.</p>
<p>Therefore, the Directive introduces the right to be forgotten (oncological oblivion), which grants cancer survivors the right to not disclose their prior history when applying for life insurance. The Directive has been adopted so far by several member states, among which there is variation in the time period used for the right to be implemented (5-10 years). The said period is shorter in some Member States in case the survivor was underage when diagnosed, provided there is no relapse, as well as in case of diagnosis of non-invasive cancer. Other countries have adopted non-legislative frameworks which work as conventions between the government and the insurer, and regulatory Codes of Conduct.</p>
<p><strong>The Greek Framework: From Self-Regulation to Statutory Protection</strong></p>
<p>Specifically, as far as Greece is concerned, Law No. 5317/2026, which transposes said Directive, sets a five-year period starting from the completion of treatment, after which the use of personal data related to a consumer’s cancer diagnosis is prohibited, in the context of an insurance contract linked to a credit agreement. The authority responsible for supervising and enforcing this provision is the Hellenic Data Protection Authority. Previously, in 2024, a Code of Conduct had been issued, which served as a voluntary commitment by Greek insurance companies. The Code applied to life insurance policies linked to mortgage, business, or consumer loans, with a maximum total insured amount of 300,000 euros. Therefore, the Code of Conduct continues to apply in cases not covered by the scope of the Directive.</p>
<p>The enactment of Law 5317/2026 marks the transition from self-regulation and the Code of Conduct to statutory protection. The use of personal data relating to a consumer’s diagnosis of an oncological disease for the purposes of an insurance contract linked to a credit agreement is prohibited, provided that five (5) years have elapsed since the completion of treatment without any recurrence of the disease. The purpose of this legislative framework is: (i) equal access, (ii) fair insurance premiums, in the sense that a history of cancer may not be used as justification for excessive increases in life insurance premiums, and (iii) the protection of personal data, in the sense that insured persons are no longer required to disclose their medical history once the above-mentioned period has elapsed.</p>
<p>However, in order for the purpose of a legislative provision to be effectively achieved, it is also necessary to provide for legal consequences in the event of its infringement. The unlawful processing and use of such data by a bank or insurance company may trigger, on the one hand, administrative fines and, on the other hand, civil liability for damages.</p>
<p>Since Law 5317/2026 constitutes consumer protection legislation, the General Secretariat for Commerce &amp; Consumer Protection may impose significant administrative fines. Furthermore, as medical data constitute “special category data”, the Hellenic Data Protection Authority may also independently impose an administrative fine. The Bank of Greece, in its capacity as the supervisory authority for insurance companies, also appears to have the power to impose sanctions in cases of non-compliance with the applicable statutory obligations and the relevant Code of Conduct. Furthermore, the consumer has the right to bring proceedings before the civil courts, seeking compensation for non-pecuniary damage resulting from the unlawful processing of their sensitive personal data and the violation of the “Right to be Forgotten”. Finally, potential criminal sanctions cannot be excluded, as Greek data protection legislation (Law 4624/2019), which is also applicable, expressly provides for criminal sanctions. Therefore, Law 5317/2026 establishes the prohibition on such use under Article 16, while the criminal prosecution of company officers or other responsible persons who violate this prohibition is based on the general criminal provisions of Article 38 of Law 4624/2019 (which constitutes the Greek implementing legislation supplementing the GDPR).</p>
<p>You can read the full analysis here: <a href="https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=2bac3053-74c5-4605-aee6-b1915baea1ee">The Right to be forgotten and its impact on the insurance market &#8211; Lexology</a></p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/the-right-to-be-forgotten-and-its-impact-on-the-insurance-market/">The Right to be forgotten and its impact on the insurance market</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">14806</post-id>	</item>
		<item>
		<title>Is Your Business Ready for Greece&#8217;s Cybersecurity Law? Law 5160/2024 in Practice, and Where Greece Stands in the EU</title>
		<link>https://rokas.com/is-your-business-ready-for-greeces-cybersecurity-law-law-5160-2024-in-practice-and-where-greece-stands-in-the-eu/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Rokas admin]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Wed, 26 Aug 2026 10:38:16 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Data Protection]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://rokas.com/?p=14803</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>The article was drafted by Alexandros Sarris &#38; Magdalini Mavromichali, Senior Associates for Lexology on 26 August 2026. The compliance deadline businesses already missed Most companies still think of Greece&#8217;s cybersecurity law, Law 5160/2024, as a future obligation. It isn&#8217;t. The law transposing the EU&#8217;s NIS2 Directive has been in force since 27 November 2024, [&#8230;]</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/is-your-business-ready-for-greeces-cybersecurity-law-law-5160-2024-in-practice-and-where-greece-stands-in-the-eu/">Is Your Business Ready for Greece&#8217;s Cybersecurity Law? Law 5160/2024 in Practice, and Where Greece Stands in the EU</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong><em>The article was drafted by Alexandros Sarris &amp; Magdalini Mavromichali, Senior Associates for Lexology on 26 August 2026.</em></strong></p>
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<ol>
<li><b>The compliance deadline businesses already missed</b></li>
</ol>
<p>Most companies still think of Greece&#8217;s <strong class="highlight" data-markjs="true">cybersecurity</strong> law, Law 5160/2024, as a future obligation. It isn&#8217;t. The law transposing the EU&#8217;s NIS2 Directive has been in force since 27 November 2024, registration with the National <strong class="highlight" data-markjs="true">Cybersecurity</strong> Authority closed earlier in 2025, and the regulator is now actively supervising the market. For essential entities, the exposure for getting this wrong runs to €10,000,000 or 2% of worldwide turnover, whichever is higher, and board members can be held personally liable for governance failures, including through suspension from their management functions.</p>
<p>This article sets out what the law actually requires, how it interacts with two regimes many affected entities already know well, DORA and the GDPR, and how Greece&#8217;s position compares with the rest of the EU, including the Netherlands, where equivalent legislation has just been confirmed to take effect on 15 August 2026.</p>
<ol start="2">
<li><b>Background: from NIS to NIS2</b></li>
</ol>
<p>NIS2 replaced the original 2016 NIS Directive following a wave of attacks on hospitals, energy grids, and supply chains across the Union. Compared with its predecessor, it widens the sectors in scope, tightens supervision, strengthens cross-border cooperation between Member States, expands the list of expected risk-management measures, and introduces a more structured incident-notification regime with defined deadlines. Law 5160/2024 mirrors the three pillars of the Directive itself: obligations placed directly on in-scope entities, a strengthened role for the national regulator, and a formal cooperation mechanism at EU level.</p>
<p>A defining feature of the regime is where accountability lands. The law requires a named Information Systems Security Officer for every in-scope entity. That officer must be a person distinct from the entity&#8217;s Data Protection Officer under Article 37 GDPR, must act autonomously in decision-making, and serves as the entity&#8217;s direct point of contact with the regulator. Administrative bodies bear personal responsibility for adopting and maintaining the required risk-management measures, placing accountability with the board and senior management rather than solely with IT functions.</p>
<ol start="3">
<li><b>Affected entities/persons</b></li>
</ol>
<p>The law casts a wide net, dividing covered activity into two tiers of sector. Sectors of high criticality include energy, digital infrastructure, transport, space, health, public administration, drinking water, banking, financial market infrastructure, and ICT service management. A broader tier of other critical sectors covers chemicals manufacturing and distribution, general manufacturing, research, postal and courier services, waste management, food production and distribution, and digital providers.</p>
<p>Within these sectors, entities are classified as either essential or important, based on criteria set out in Articles 3 and 4 of the law, generally tracking size and the criticality of the sector concerned. Essential entities are subject to materially tighter supervision, more intrusive enforcement powers, and higher potential fines than important entities. Certain categories, including cloud computing, DNS, and top-level domain registry providers, are treated as a distinct group under Article 19, reflecting the systemic role they play in the wider digital ecosystem, and were subject to an earlier registration deadline on that basis.</p>
<p>In our experience, the businesses most exposed right now are not the obvious critical-infrastructure operators who saw this coming years ago. They are mid-market companies in manufacturing, logistics, food production, and digital services who assumed this law was aimed at someone else, and are only now discovering they meet the size and sector thresholds.</p>
<ol start="4">
<li><b>What compliance actually requires</b></li>
</ol>
<p>Three obligations follow once an entity falls within scope.</p>
<ol>
<li><u>Registration</u>: essential and important entities were required to submit the information specified in Article 4(3) to the National <strong class="highlight" data-markjs="true">Cybersecurity</strong> Authority, with cloud, DNS, and TLD providers submitting their Article 19(1) information on an earlier timeline. Both windows have closed, and any entity that has not yet registered should treat the obligation as overdue.</li>
<li><u>Risk management</u>: administrative bodies must adopt <strong class="highlight" data-markjs="true">cybersecurity</strong> measures that are technical, organizational, and business-related, proportionate to the entity&#8217;s risk exposure, size, and the likely severity of incidents. Article 15(2) sets these out in detail, including policies for risk analysis and information-system security, incident management, business continuity, basic cyber hygiene and staff training, the use of cryptography and encryption where appropriate, multi-factor or continuous authentication, and secured voice, video, text, and emergency communications.</li>
<li><u>Incident reporting</u>: significant incidents, meaning those compromising the availability, authenticity, integrity, or confidentiality of data or services and causing or risking severe operational disruption, financial loss, or harm, must be reported to the Greek CSIRT in three stages. An early warning is due within 24 hours of the entity becoming aware of the incident, indicating whether it appears to result from unlawful or malicious activity and whether it may have cross-border effects. An incident notification follows within 72 hours, updating the early warning with an initial assessment of severity, impact, and any available indicators of compromise. A final report is due no later than one month after the notification, describing the incident, the type of threat, and the mitigation measures applied.</li>
</ol>
<p>On paper, this reads like a checklist. In practice, a considerable amount of businesses are missing at least one of the three pillars entirely, most commonly a tested incident-reporting process that would actually work at 2am on a Saturday.</p>
<p>You can read the full article here: <a href="https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=d5d147bb-8c17-468e-bb50-25339a81d842">Is Your Business Ready for Greece&#8217;s Cybersecurity Law? Law 5160/2024 in Practice, and Where Greece Stands in the EU </a></p>
</div>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
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<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/is-your-business-ready-for-greeces-cybersecurity-law-law-5160-2024-in-practice-and-where-greece-stands-in-the-eu/">Is Your Business Ready for Greece&#8217;s Cybersecurity Law? Law 5160/2024 in Practice, and Where Greece Stands in the EU</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">14803</post-id>	</item>
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		<title>Multi-Level Marketing (MLM) and Pyramid Schemes in the Republic of Serbia: Where Is the Line Between a Lawful Business Model and Prohibited Practice?</title>
		<link>https://rokas.com/14799-2/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Rokas admin]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 03 Aug 2026 12:48:19 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[International Offices | News & Updates]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://rokas.com/?p=14799</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>The article drafted by Jelena Pejovic, Associate &#38; Mirjana Mladenovic Paripovic, Senior Associate  for Lexology on 31 July 2026 The development of the digital economy and new models of product and service distribution has further blurred the line between permissible forms of direct selling and prohibited pyramid schemes. A particular challenge lies in distinguishing legitimate [&#8230;]</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/14799-2/">Multi-Level Marketing (MLM) and Pyramid Schemes in the Republic of Serbia: Where Is the Line Between a Lawful Business Model and Prohibited Practice?</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em><strong>The article drafted by Jelena Pejovic, Associate &amp; Mirjana Mladenovic Paripovic, Senior Associate  for Lexology on 31 July 2026</strong></em></p>
<p>The development of the digital economy and new models of product and service distribution has further blurred the line between permissible forms of direct selling and prohibited pyramid schemes. A particular challenge lies in distinguishing legitimate multi-level marketing (MLM) models from systems whose economic sustainability is primarily based on the continuous recruitment of new participants. Although both models rely on a multi-level organisation of participants, their legal and economic foundations are fundamentally different. This phenomenon has become even more complex due to the fact that, alongside traditional physical trade in goods, these models increasingly appear in the digital sphere through the sale of intangible products.</p>
<p>A significant milestone in the legal distinction between MLM models and prohibited pyramid schemes was the decision of the United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in In re Amway Corp., decided in 1979. In that proceeding, criteria relevant for distinguishing legitimate multi-level selling models from unlawful pyramid structures were systematically examined.</p>
<p>Although the Amway decision has no direct application in the Republic of Serbia, the criteria considered in that proceeding continue to represent one of the relevant reference points for distinguishing legitimate MLM models from pyramid schemes in numerous legal systems.</p>
<p><strong>Multi-Level Marketing as a Business Model, Not a Legal Form</strong></p>
<p>From the perspective of corporate law, it is important to clarify the nature of the concept of multi-level marketing. MLM, in itself, does not constitute a separate legal form or a distinct category of business entity; rather, it represents a business model that may be implemented by business entities operating under different legal forms.</p>
<p>The manner in which distributors are engaged and their tax status depend on the specific business model and the legal nature of their relationship with the company.</p>
<p>Accordingly, any entity seeking to implement this business model on the Serbian market must be registered in accordance with the Companies Act of the Republic of Serbia and other regulations governing the performance of business activities, have an appropriate registered activity, comply with its tax obligations and operate within the applicable regulatory framework.</p>
<p><strong>Regulatory Framework</strong></p>
<p>Where the sale of goods within a particular MLM model is carried out through direct contact with consumers outside business premises, such relationships may fall within the scope of the provisions governing direct selling under Article 15 of the Trade Law of the Republic of Serbia. This form of trade involves selling outside business premises, with the simultaneous physical presence of the trader and the consumer, together with the consumer’s prior consent to receive an offer. It may be conducted at promotional sales events or at the consumer’s residence or workplace.</p>
<p>In practice, relationships between a company and its distributors may be regulated through various types of contractual arrangements, depending on the actual substance of their relationship, including a commercial agency agreement where the statutory requirements for such an arrangement are fulfilled. However, the contractual structure itself is not decisive for assessing the legality of an MLM model; rather, the relevant consideration is its actual economic function and the manner in which revenue is generated.</p>
<p>Where a system operates in such a way that income is generated exclusively or predominantly from the actual sale of products to end consumers, this represents a lawful form of direct selling.</p>
<p><strong>When Does Multi-Level Marketing Become a Prohibited Pyramid Scheme?</strong></p>
<p>The absence of specific regulation governing MLM leaves room for abuse and the emergence of unlawful pyramid schemes disguised as MLM business models. A particular challenge arises from the fact that modern pyramid structures are rarely presented as traditional profit-making schemes. In practice, contemporary digital models are often presented as “educational platforms”, “digital memberships”, “affiliate programmes” or “investment communities”, meaning that the formal label attached to a business model is far less significant than its actual economic structure.</p>
<p>Article 43 of the Trade Law expressly prohibits organising, conducting, advertising and encouraging pyramid selling schemes. Paragraph 2 of this Article provides that pyramid selling constitutes a form of trade whereby customers are enabled to purchase goods or services exclusively from persons included in a chain or network of resale of goods or services (members of the network), where the seller conditions the purchase upon an obligation to pay membership fees or other compensation to the organiser of the network or another network member; an obligation to purchase the same or other goods in quantities or values which the seller knows or must know are unreasonably high; or an obligation to find other persons who will engage in the resale of goods offered by the seller, where the right to receive remuneration for finding such persons is conditional upon prior payment or the provision of a special fee to the seller. In addition to prohibiting pyramid selling schemes, the Trade Law also establishes misdemeanour liability for violations of this prohibition. Pursuant to Article 68 of the Trade Law, a legal entity that organises, conducts, advertises or encourages pyramid selling may be subject to a fine ranging from RSD 500,000 to RSD 2,000,000.</p>
<p>In addition to the prohibition of pyramid selling under the Trade Law, certain models displaying characteristics of pyramid schemes may also constitute misleading commercial practices under the Consumer Protection Act of the Republic of Serbia. These include the creation, operation or advertising by a trader of a product sales system in which a consumer pays a fee for the opportunity to obtain income which does not depend on the success of selling a particular product, but rather on the participation of other consumers in that sales system (pyramid scheme). Pursuant to Article 187 of the Consumer Protection Act, a legal entity may be subject to a fine ranging from RSD 300,000 to RSD 2,000,000 if it misleads consumers in the manner prescribed by Articles 18-20 of the Consumer Protection Act. Given that the Act expressly recognises pyramid schemes as a form of misleading commercial practice, such models may also give rise to misdemeanour liability under consumer protection legislation.</p>
<p>The above provisions demonstrate that the legislature does not prohibit multi-level distribution as such, but rather business models in which recruitment of new participants represents the dominant source of income.</p>
<p><strong>The Economic Source of Income Criterion</strong></p>
<p>From both a legal and economic perspective, the essential distinction lies in the source of profit generation. In a legitimate MLM model, the product or service has independent market value and genuine demand, regardless of the recruitment of new members. Even if the recruitment of new members were to cease, such a business model could continue to operate based on the continued sale of products or services to end consumers.</p>
<p>By contrast, in pyramid structures, the product or service often plays a secondary role and primarily serves as a formal basis for charging entry fees or maintaining the recruitment system. Initial participation fees are often high and may be disguised as “mandatory starter packages”, “vouchers” or “educational levels”. Where the economic survival of a system is not based on genuine market demand, but rather on purchases made by participants within the system and the recruitment of new participants, such a model exhibits characteristics of a pyramid structure and carries a significant risk of economic unsustainability. For this reason, when assessing the legal classification of a particular model, the decisive issue is not whether a company formally sells a particular product or service, but whether the business model could operate sustainably without a constant influx of new members.</p>
<p><strong>Civil Law Consequences</strong></p>
<p>From the perspective of civil law, contracts for participation in systems displaying characteristics of pyramid selling may be deemed void under the general principles of contract law if they are contrary to mandatory statutory provisions, public policy or good morals. However, the assessment of invalidity always depends on the specific circumstances of the case and the content of the contractual relationship, as assessed by the court.</p>
<p>You can read the full article on Lexology: <a href="https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=748c7948-d379-42e0-ad56-69969249b317">Multi-Level Marketing (MLM) and Pyramid Schemes in the Republic of Serbia: Where Is the Line Between a Lawful Business Model and Prohibited Practice? &#8211; Lexology</a></p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/14799-2/">Multi-Level Marketing (MLM) and Pyramid Schemes in the Republic of Serbia: Where Is the Line Between a Lawful Business Model and Prohibited Practice?</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">14799</post-id>	</item>
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		<title>Embedded Finance in Greece: Regulatory Classification, Credit Intermediation Risk, and a Moving Compliance Target</title>
		<link>https://rokas.com/embedded-finance-in-greece-regulatory-classification-credit-intermediation-risk-and-a-moving-compliance-target/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Rokas admin]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 27 Jul 2026 12:46:01 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Capital Markets & Financial Regulation]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://rokas.com/?p=14794</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>The article was drafted by Alexandros Sarris, Senior Associate &#38; Magdalini Mavromichali, Senior Associate for Lexology on July 24 A recently announced bank-fintech joint venture in the Greek market offers a useful case study in three regulatory issues that any embedded finance structure operating in the EU now needs to confront: how the product is [&#8230;]</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/embedded-finance-in-greece-regulatory-classification-credit-intermediation-risk-and-a-moving-compliance-target/">Embedded Finance in Greece: Regulatory Classification, Credit Intermediation Risk, and a Moving Compliance Target</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>The article was drafted by Alexandros Sarris, Senior Associate &amp; Magdalini Mavromichali, Senior Associate for Lexology on July 24</em></p>
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<p><i>A recently announced bank-fintech joint venture in the Greek market offers a useful case study in three regulatory issues that any embedded finance structure operating in the EU now needs to confront: how the product is classified, who in the merchant chain needs a license, and how much of today&#8217;s compliance build will survive the next eighteen months of EU legislative change.</i></p>
<p>Embedded finance — the practice of offering credit, payments, or insurance products at the point of sale through a non-financial merchant&#8217;s own channel — has become one of the fastest-growing categories of retail financial services in Europe. A recently announced 50/50 joint venture between a major Greek bank and an Estonian fintech platform, structured to launch Buy Now Pay Later (BNPL), sales finance, and consumer lending products in Greece, illustrates why the legal groundwork for such ventures is considerably more complex than the commercial rationale suggests. Three issues in particular deserve close attention from any institution structuring, partnering in, or plugging into an embedded finance platform: regulatory classification, credit intermediation licensing exposure across the merchant ecosystem, and the transitional risk created by two major pieces of EU legislation currently in motion.</p>
<ol>
<li><b>Regulatory Classification Is the Threshold Question — and It Is Not Self-Evident</b></li>
</ol>
<p>Before any conduct-of-business rule can be applied, a foundational question must be answered: under which legal regime does the product actually sit? This is not a formality. The answer determines applicable capital adequacy requirements, the competent supervisory authority, reporting obligations, and whether the entity falls within the open banking and strong customer authentication regime at all.</p>
<p>In the Greek transaction referenced above, the parties elected to pursue authorization as a &#8220;Credit Company&#8221; under Article 153 of Law 4261/2014 — the general banking law — rather than as a payment institution or electronic money institution under Law 4537/2018, which transposes the revised Payment Services Directive (PSD2). That is a deliberate structuring choice with real consequences. A payment institution license would bring the entity within the EBA&#8217;s PSD2 register, subject it to strong customer authentication obligations, and expose it to the interoperability requirements — including mandatory API access for third-party providers — that define open banking. A Credit Company authorization sits outside that regime entirely, with a different capital and supervisory framework attached.</p>
<p>This classification exercise becomes genuinely difficult when the underlying product is structurally hybrid, as BNPL and embedded lending products typically are. Regulatory commentary on Germany&#8217;s implementation of the new EU Consumer Credit Directive is instructive here: whether an arrangement is treated as credit intermediation (triggering a licensing requirement) or as the supplier&#8217;s own point-of-sale financing (triggering only a lighter registration obligation) turns entirely on the specific structure of the deal — who is the consumer&#8217;s contracting counterparty, who bears the credit risk, and whether payment claims are assigned to a third party. Two commercially indistinguishable BNPL products can therefore fall under entirely different licensing regimes purely as a function of contractual architecture. For a multi-product embedded finance platform, this means classification is not a one-time exercise completed at incorporation; each product line — BNPL, sales finance, consumer credit — may need to be independently tested against multiple possible characterizations, and the answer may diverge across jurisdictions if the platform later expands beyond its initial market.</p>
<p>You can read the article on Lexology here: <a href="https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=1c27cb01-00aa-40f3-9124-f50301f2f5f0">Embedded Finance in Greece: Regulatory Classification, Credit Intermediation Risk, and a Moving Compliance Target &#8211; Lexology</a></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
</div>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/embedded-finance-in-greece-regulatory-classification-credit-intermediation-risk-and-a-moving-compliance-target/">Embedded Finance in Greece: Regulatory Classification, Credit Intermediation Risk, and a Moving Compliance Target</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
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		<post-id xmlns="com-wordpress:feed-additions:1">14794</post-id>	</item>
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		<title>Greece Introduces Advance Tax Rulings: A New Era of Tax Certainty</title>
		<link>https://rokas.com/greece-introduces-advance-tax-rulings-a-new-era-of-tax-certainty/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Rokas admin]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 2026 14:05:18 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Taxation]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://rokas.com/?p=14791</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>The article was drafted by Alexandra Karadima, Senior Associate &#38; Christos Theodorou, Partner on 20 July Introduction Greece has taken a significant step towards modernizing its tax administration with the introduction of a formal Advance Tax Ruling (&#8220;ATR&#8221;) framework. Enacted through Article 9A of the Code of Tax Procedure by Law 5301/2026, the new regime—effective from 1 October [&#8230;]</p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/greece-introduces-advance-tax-rulings-a-new-era-of-tax-certainty/">Greece Introduces Advance Tax Rulings: A New Era of Tax Certainty</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>The article was drafted by Alexandra Karadima, Senior Associate &amp; Christos Theodorou, Partner on 20 July</p>
<p><b>Introduction</b></p>
<p>Greece has taken a significant step towards modernizing its tax administration with the introduction of a formal <b>Advance Tax Ruling (&#8220;ATR&#8221;)</b> framework. Enacted through Article 9A of the Code of Tax Procedure by Law 5301/2026, the new regime—effective from <b>1 October 2026</b>—allows taxpayers to obtain binding guidance from the Independent Authority for Public Revenue (&#8220;AADE&#8221;) on the tax consequences of contemplated transactions before they are implemented.</p>
<p>Advance tax rulings have long been recognized as an important feature of modern tax administrations across Europe. They provide businesses and investors with greater certainty when undertaking complex transactions, facilitate investment decisions and reduce the likelihood of future tax disputes. By introducing a structured ruling mechanism, Greece aligns itself with the practice followed in many other European jurisdictions and reinforces its broader objective of promoting transparency, predictability and cooperative compliance.</p>
<p><b>What is an Advance Tax Ruling?</b></p>
<p>An AΤR is a written interpretation issued by AADE confirming how Greek tax or customs legislation should apply to a specific transaction or arrangement before it is implemented. In this sense, the ATR provides certainty as to how the existing legislative framework should be interpreted and applied to the specific facts presented by the applicant.</p>
<p>The scope of the new framework is deliberately broad. Taxpayers may request rulings in relation to virtually all taxes administered under the Code of Tax Procedure, including corporate income tax, personal income tax, VAT, Digital Transaction Fee and customs matters. This makes the Greek regime one of the most comprehensive advance ruling systems currently available within the European Union.</p>
<p><b>Who Can Apply and Under What Conditions?</b></p>
<p>The new framework is designed to resolve genuine interpretative uncertainty before a transaction takes place. Accordingly, an application will generally be admissible only where:</p>
<ul>
<li>the transaction or arrangement has <b>not yet been implemented</b>;</li>
<li>the relevant facts are sufficiently clear and complete to enable a legal assessment; and</li>
<li>the request raises a genuine “gap” regarding the interpretation or application of Greek tax or customs legislation (meaning an issue that is not addressed by any administrative circulare).</li>
</ul>
<p>The ruling mechanism is therefore not intended to provide abstract legal opinions or confirm the straightforward application of clear statutory provisions. Instead, it is aimed at situations where uncertainty exists and taxpayers require certainty before proceeding with a proposed transaction.</p>
<p>Article 9A also expressly excludes certain matters from the scope of the regime. Advance tax rulings cannot be requested for:</p>
<ul>
<li>transfer pricing matters already covered by the Advance Pricing Agreement (APA) framework;</li>
<li>issues requiring the interpretation or application of foreign law; or</li>
<li>matters that are already subject to administrative or judicial dispute resolution involving the applicant.</li>
</ul>
<p><b>The Procedure</b></p>
<p>The ruling process is initiated by submitting an application to AADE together with the prescribed documentation and payment of the applicable administrative fee.</p>
<p>The legislation adopts a variable fee structure, ranging from <b>EUR 3,500 to EUR 50,000</b>, depending on factors such as the complexity of the request, the number of issues involved, the size of the applicant and whether expedited treatment is requested. Where the application is rejected within the statutory deadline, the amount exceeding the initial filing fee is refunded.</p>
<p>Although the level of the fees is higher than in some European jurisdictions, it reflects the highly specialised nature of the ruling process and seeks to ensure that the mechanism is used for transactions involving genuine interpretative uncertainty rather than theoretical or speculative questions.</p>
<p>You can read the full article here: <a href="http://rokas.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/Newsletter_Greece-Introduces-Advance-Tax-Rulings-A-New-Era-of-Tax-Certainty-3.pdf">Newsletter_Greece Introduces Advance Tax Rulings A New Era of Tax Certainty</a></p>
<p>The post <a href="https://rokas.com/greece-introduces-advance-tax-rulings-a-new-era-of-tax-certainty/">Greece Introduces Advance Tax Rulings: A New Era of Tax Certainty</a> appeared first on <a href="https://rokas.com">Rokas Law Firm</a>.</p>
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